Neuroscience remains a cornerstone of the theory today, now reflecting contemporary techniques [6,11,12]. For example, in relation to autism spectrum disorders (ASD), Kilroy, Aziz-Zadeh and Cermak [11] recently explored postulates proposed by Ayres (e.g., registration, modulation) in the context of neuroimaging literature, focusing on the substantial body of research that examines sensory integrative dysfunction in children with ASD.
Physiological mechanisms associated with the autonomic nervous system were first investigated because individuals with sensory hyperreactivity displayed an unusually strong fight or flight response in the presence of aversive, and often non-aversive, sensory experiences. Miller and colleagues [68] observed increased activation of the sympathetic nervous system in a research paradigm called the Sensory Challenge Protocol. Within several diagnostic groups, individuals with hyperreactivity to sensation had elevated electrodermal activity (a measure of sympathetic activity) and slower habituation in response to repeated sensory events across five sensory domains [68,69,70,71,72]. Lane and colleagues [73] identified the magnitude of electrodermal response to sensory challenge as a mediator between high levels of alertness and behavioral anxiety and sympathetic recovery from a sensory challenge. Additionally, Schaaf et al. [74] documented inadequate parasympathetic activation (i.e., lower vagal tone) in children with sensory hyperreactivity compared to controls. These investigators interpreted this as reflecting autonomic imbalance, with increased parasympathetic activation to regulate the sympathetic system and subsequent reactivity to sensation.
Sensory Integration And The Child Ayres Pdf Free
The ability to filter out redundant or unnecessary stimuli has also been hypothesized as an underlying deficit of individuals with poor sensory modulation (i.e., hyper-reactivity), which researchers interpret as evidence of over-processing of low-salience stimuli. High density electrophysiology recordings during a sensory gating paradigm suggested that both adults [75] and children [76] with sensory hyper-reactivity had less efficient sensory gating than their typically-developing counterparts.
Evidence from diffusion tensor imagining (DTI) studies further confirm that impairments in multisensory integration may be related to sensory hyper-reactivity. Brain images of children with sensory hyper-reactivity identified by the Sensory Profile revealed reduced white matter microstructure in parietal and occipital tracts, where integration of auditory, tactile, and visual information occurs [83,84]. Although these primary sensory processing tracts were affected in both children with ASD and those with hyper-reactivity but no other clinical diagnoses, children in the latter group tended toward lower connectivity compared to children with ASD suggesting that the connectivity differences reflected sensory hyper-reactivity rather than being a marker of ASD. Children with ASD had distinct differences in regions of the amygdala and hippocampus associated with social emotional processing [84]. In a separate study, children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder showed decreased connectivity in tracts of the prefrontal region that mediate motor, cognitive, and behaviors functions [85,86].
Using fMRI Green and colleagues [87] also found atypical connectivity and multi-sensory integration associated with sensory hyper-reactivity. This work examined the salience network, made up of a number of structures (i.e., anterior insula and other insular regions, anterior cingulate cortex, temporal poles, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, amygdala) supports our ability to decide which environmental sensory input has meaning (salience) in the moment, warranting attention. In individuals with ASD and sensory hyper-reactivity greater connectivity within the salience network, and between this and primary sensory cortex, was identified along with reduced connectivity to visual association areas. A similar pattern was found in individuals without ASD. These atypical connectivity findings suggest that sensory hyper-reactivity itself is linked to allocating too much attention to basic external sensory input, while also limiting attention to social cues.
Further, prevalence rates are growing for diagnoses that characteristically involve sensory integration and praxis difficulties. For example, diagnoses of attention deficit disorders with and without hyperactivity are on the rise [109], and at least one study indicates that vestibular processing challenges, previously unidentified in this population, may affect some children with this diagnosis [110]. Sensory integration and praxis concerns, including atypical reactivity, are prevalent among children with autism [45,54]. This is a population with epidemic growth, as reflected in dramatic changes in prevalence estimates reported Center for Disease Control (CDC): 1 in 166 in 2004, and 1 in 59 in 2014 [111]. In addition, many low incidence populations also are characterized by one or more sensory integrative deficit, such as poor vestibular functions in children with cochlear implants [112] and multiple sensory processing deficits among premature infants, which are not outgrown in childhood [113,114,115].
This book is also an excellent way to improve communication between therapist, parents, and teachers.This classic handbook, from the originator of sensory integration theory, is now available in an updated, parent-friendly edition. Retaining all the features that made the original edition so popular with both parents and professionals, Sensory Integration and the Child remains the best book on the subject. With a new foreword by Dr. Florence Clark and commentaries by recognised experts in sensory integration, this volume explains sensory integrative dysfunction, how to recognise it, and what to do about it. Helpful tips, checklists, question-and-answer sections, and parent resources make the new edition more informative and useful. Indispensable reading for parents, this book is also an excellent way to improve communication between therapist, parents, and teachers.
A. Jean Ayres believed that children have an innate drive to explore and interact with their world and that these experiences nourish the brain and promote development. Ayres Sensory Integration (ASI) fosters the child's active participation in physical, social, and functional activities using active, individually tailored, sensory-rich experiences to promote skills. This guidebook describes Aryes's sensory integrative approach and applies it to children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
Many children with ASD have difficulty integrating sensory information, which affects their behavior, learning, social interactions, and participation in daily activities. Because the sensory integrative approach is frequently used with this population, guidelines for its use are essential.
Most recent research estimates that up to 95% of children with developmental delays or disabilities have deficits in sensory functioning (AOTA, 2017). Additionally, it is estimated that sensory processing difficulties occur in 5% to 14% kindergartners, 16% of elementary students, and 10% to 12% of people of all ages with no related diagnosis (AOTA, 2017).
Roley, S. S., Mailloux, Z., Parham, L. D., Schaaf, R. C., Lane, C. J., & Cermak, S. (2015). Sensory integration and praxis patterns in children with autism. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 69, 6901220010. 10.5014/ajot.2015.012476
Schaaf, R. C., Cohn, E. S., Burke, J., Dumont, R., Miller, A., & Mailloux, Z. (2015). Linking sensory factors to participation: Establishing intervention goals with parents for children with autism spectrum disorder. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 69, http:// dx.doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2015.018036
The field of behavioral neuroscience has been successful in using an animal model of enriched environments for over five decades to measure the rehabilitative and preventative effects of sensory, cognitive and motor stimulation in animal models. Several key principles of enriched environments match those used in sensory integration therapy, a treatment used for children with neurodevelopmental disorders. This paper reviews the paradigm of environmental enrichment, compares animal models of enriched environments to principles of sensory integration treatment, and discusses applications for the rehabilitation of neurodevelopmental disorders. Based on this review, the essential features in the enriched environment paradigm which should be included in sensory integration treatment are multiple sensory experiences, novelty in the environment, and active engagement in challenging cognitive, sensory, and motor tasks. Use of sensory integration treatment may be most applicable for children with anxiety, hypersensitivity, repetitive behaviors or heightened levels of stress. Additionally, individuals with deficits in social behavior, social participation, or impairments in learning and memory may show gains with this type of treatment.
Atypical patterns of sensory and motor behavior are present in a number of developmental diagnostic conditions including autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Sensory Integration treatment, aimed at ameliorating these behaviors, is one of the most common rehabilitation techniques sought out by parents of children with these disorders (Green et al. 2006). The theoretical framework underlying this treatment strategy suggests that actively engaging children in complex and meaningful sensory and motor activities in an opportunity-rich environment can produce meaningful changes in attention and arousal regulation, motor planning and coordination, and social interaction and play abilities. Evidence for the effectiveness of sensory integration treatment is emerging (Fazlioglu and Baran 2008; Miller et al. 2007; Schaaf and Nightlinger 2007; Smith et al. 2005), but is plagued with methodological issues spanning from what constitutes sensory integration treatment to what outcomes are expected from this type of intervention (Parham et al. 2007; Williames and Erdie-Lalena 2009). At the same time, the field of behavioral neuroscience has been successful in using a paradigm of enriched environments for over five decades to measure the rehabilitative and preventative effects of sensory, cognitive and motor stimulation in animal models. Much of this work has been done with rats and mice, and this rodent work will be the focus of this paper. While extreme caution must be employed when comparing human and animal models, it is worth considering how successful and related animal paradigms can better inform selection of treatment parameters and outcome measures in human studies. The aims of this paper are to review the paradigm of environmental enrichment, compare essential features of animal models of enriched environments to principles of sensory integration treatment, and discuss applications for the rehabilitation of neurodevelopmental disorders. 2ff7e9595c
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